Human Foetuses Experience Pain: A Position Paper.
European journal of pain (London, England) January 1, 2026 Michelle Hamani, Daniel Ciampi de Andrade, Lisandra Stein Bernardes
Foetuses in the second to third trimester may feel pain and exhibit different shades of consciousness, challenging the binary view of consciousness as simply present or absent. Advances in 4D ultrasound enable assessment of foetal facial expressions indicative of pain, leading to specialized foetal pain behaviour scales. Targeted hand movements, MEG, and EEG provide evidence of goal-directedness and action planning, while learning paradigms like habituation suggest preliminary memory and higher-order cognition. This position paper reviews current research on foetal pain behaviour and awareness, arguing that foetuses may possess levels of awareness and responsiveness necessary for pain perception.